Population and urbanisation, Year 11: a fast-growing city in a poorer country

They are at the age to have children, so the birth rate rises

HintThink about which stage of life comes next for people in their twenties.

The whyMigration and natural increase are linked. Young adult migrants start families in the city, so births go up. At the same time a young population has few deaths, so the gap between births and deaths widens.

regional

HintIt is the smallest of the three scales.

The whyThe three scales are regional, national and international. Regional importance is about the area around the city. National importance covers the whole country, such as being the capital or the main port. International importance means links with other countries, such as foreign companies and long-distance flights.

People live close together, so each clinic, school or pipe serves many more people

HintCompare how far one water main would have to run to reach a thousand homes in the two settings.

The whyThis is why urban growth brings social opportunities. One hospital or water main in a dense city reaches a very large number of people. In remote rural areas the same money reaches far fewer, so services there are often thinner.

The multiplier effect

HintIts name comes from a maths operation that makes a number bigger.

The whyA new factory pays wages. Workers spend them in local shops and on local services, which then take on staff of their own. Firms and workers also pay taxes, which the city can spend on schools, clinics and roads. This is how an industrial area can stimulate wider economic development.

formal

HintThink of the kind of dress code that has the same name.

The whyFormal jobs are registered with the government. They bring steadier pay and some legal protection, and the tax helps to fund services. Growing industrial areas matter to a city in a lower income country (LIC) or newly emerging economy (NEE) because they add jobs of this kind.

People arrive faster than the city can afford to build services for them

HintCompare two speeds: one belongs to the newcomers, the other to the builders.

The whyPipes, sewers, power lines and schools are expensive and take years to plan and build. When hundreds of thousands of people are added each year, the city authority cannot raise the money or build quickly enough. This is the root of most challenges in a fast-growing city.

Sanitation

HintIt comes from the Latin word for health.

The whySanitation is about what happens to sewage. It is a separate challenge from supplying clean water, although the two are linked: without toilets and sewers, human waste gets into the water people drink. The World Health Organization reported that in 2022 over 1.5 billion people worldwide still lacked a basic service such as a private toilet.

Informal workers and businesses are not registered, so they pay little or no tax

HintAsk where a council gets its money from in the first place.

The whyInformal work is unregistered: no contract, no legal protection and usually no tax. It gives millions of people an income where formal jobs are scarce, and it takes skill and effort. But a city with a large informal economy collects less tax, so it has less to spend on services.

The lanes are narrow and unplanned, so lorries cannot get along them

HintPicture the width of the vehicle, then the gap between the houses.

The whyInformal settlements grow without a street plan, so homes are packed tightly with only footpaths between them. Waste that cannot be collected is dumped or burnt, which pollutes water and air and attracts pests. The same layout makes it hard for fire engines and ambulances to reach people.

Time lost in jams delays workers and deliveries, which costs businesses money

HintImagine a van of goods stuck for two hours on the way to a shop.

The whyVehicle numbers grow faster than roads and public transport. Workers arrive late, deliveries take longer and fuel is wasted, so every business in the city pays more. Exhaust fumes from slow traffic also harm health, which is a social cost.

A site and service scheme

HintThe name lists the two things the authority provides: the ground, and what is connected to it.

The whyThe authority does the parts residents cannot do alone: legal land, roads, water and drains. Families do the part they can: building, a room at a time as money allows. It differs from a self-help scheme, which improves homes where people already live.

Their work, which was close to their old homes

HintThink about the daily journey and its price.

The whyPeople in informal settlements usually live near where they earn: markets, workshops, building sites and better-off households. A flat far away means long, costly journeys or no income. This is why many planners now prefer to upgrade a settlement where it stands.

The people it was meant for cannot afford to benefit from it

HintAsk who actually ends up living there.

The whyTo judge a scheme, ask who benefits, not just what was built. If the homes go to better-off households, the poorest are no better off and may have lost their old homes. Affordability is one of the first tests of any scheme for the urban poor.

tenure

HintThe word comes from the French for "to hold".

The whyWithout a legal right to the land, a family can be evicted at any time, so spending on a better house is a risk. Many upgrading schemes therefore begin by giving residents legal papers for their plot. The United Nations counts a lack of secure tenure as one of five signs of a slum household.

economic; environmental

HintRead the examples in the brackets after each gap.

The whySorting effects into these three groups gives an evaluation its structure. A strong answer also asks whether the gains will last and whether they reach the poorest residents. Use evidence from your own example under each heading.