Every card in Writing composition, Year 9: argument and persuasion

A is the reason; B is the evidence

HintOne says why in general; the other points to something that happened.

WhyA reason answers 'why do you think so?'; evidence answers 'how do you know?'. An argument needs both, in that order: each reason in turn, with a fact or example attached. The school in sentence B is an invented example.

The essay has abandoned its own position

HintAsk which side the writer is on by the final full stop.

WhyRaising the other side is a strength only if you answer it. Left unanswered at the end, it cancels the four paragraphs before it and leaves the reader unsure what the writer thinks.

A

HintPick the one a doubter could go and check.

WhySentence B is a general opinion that would fit any place. Sentence A is a specific, checkable detail about this estate, which is what the national curriculum means by supporting arguments with 'factual detail'.

An anecdote

Hint'When my grandmother first came to this town...' is how one might begin.

WhyIt gives a general claim a human face, so it is good at making readers care. On its own it proves little, because one case may not be typical; the strongest arguments pair it with a fact or figure.

A straw man

HintPicture a scarecrow put up in place of a real opponent.

WhyDefeating a view nobody holds proves nothing, and readers who know the real argument stop trusting you. The honest method is the reverse: state the opposing case at its strongest, then answer that.

A

HintLook for the reply that gives the reader something to weigh.

WhyCalling a view ridiculous tells the reader how you feel, not why the view is mistaken. The other sentence meets the worry about cost with a comparison of costs, so the reader can judge the reply for themselves.

Answer it

HintDo not leave the other side with the last word.

WhyA counter-argument is raised in order to be dealt with. If you state it and move on, you have simply argued for your opponent. The reply usually opens with a turn such as 'However' or 'Yet'.

The strong one

HintReaders will already be thinking of it, whether you mention it or not.

WhyAnswering a weak objection impresses nobody, and the reader notices that the real difficulty has been avoided. Taking on the best opposing point, and showing that your case survives it, is what makes an argument convincing.

However

HintFind the hinge at the start of the second sentence.

Why'Admittedly', 'granted' and 'it is true that' open the door to the other side; 'however', 'yet' and 'nevertheless' close it again. The pair lets a reader see exactly where the opposing view ends and your answer begins.

B

HintOnly one of them could be disagreed with.

WhySentence A announces a topic; nobody could argue with it, so it gives the essay nothing to prove. Sentence B takes a position, which commits every paragraph that follows to supporting it.

It is too vague to argue against

HintTry to imagine someone taking the opposite side.

WhyIt would fit any play and any writer. A sharper version names what the language does: 'Shakespeare uses images of blood to show guilt growing in Macbeth's mind.' Now there is a claim to prove and a way to organise the paragraphs.

Cut it, or rework it to support the thesis

HintTest it against the two reasons promised in the opening sentence.

WhyEvery paragraph should be traceable back to the thesis. An interesting paragraph that supports neither cost nor comfort pulls the reader off course, however well it is written.

Direct address

HintThe speaker points the words at the listener, like a finger.

WhyIt turns a general appeal into a personal one: the listener can no longer think the message is for somebody else. Used on purpose and sparingly it draws an audience in; in every sentence it starts to sound like nagging.

A triad, also called the rule of three

HintCount the groups he calls to before asking for their attention.

WhyTricolon and triplet are other names for it. Three items feel complete and are easy to remember: two seem too few and four begin to blur. Antony also orders his three with care, naming friendship first so that the crowd hears warmth before anything else.

Emotive language

HintThe term comes from the same root as 'emotion'.

WhyBoth words report the same event, but one carries horror with it. Persuasive writers choose the loaded word on purpose, which is why a careful reader checks whether the feeling is supported by the facts.

It misrepresents what the other side said

HintCompare the claim with the proposal actually made.

WhyPersuasion works on feelings, and that is legitimate; inventing a position for the other side is not. Ethical rhetoric makes the strongest honest case, so that a reader who checks the facts still trusts the writer.